Reading problems: assessment and teaching strategies

Machine generated contents note: 1.Overview of Reading and Reading Problems Introduction Reading Problems: A National Dilemma National Reading Levels SAT and ACT Reading Scores Hit New Low Reading Needs in Today's World Recent Influences on the Teaching of Reading Response-to-Intervention The National Reading Panel and the Components of Reading Differentiated Instruction Common Core Standards Social Media and Reading Key Elements of Teaching Reading Early Literacy Word Recognition Reading Fluency Reading Comprehension Reading Vocabulary Reading-Writing Connection Enjoyment and Appreciation Summary References 2.Factors Associated With Reading Problems Introduction Neurological and Cognitive Factors Differentiated Instruction Working Memory Cognitive Strategy Instruction Environmental Factors The Home Environment The School Environment The Social Environment The Cultural Environment Emotional Factors Intelligence and Intellectual Factors Definitions of Intelligence Cultural Bias in the Measurement of Intelligence Using Intelligence Tests to Determine the Existence of a Reading Disability Concerns About Using Intelligence Tests to Determine a Reading Disability Language Factors Oral and Written Language Receptive and Expressive Language Systems of Oral Language Speech Problems and Language Disorders English Language Learners (ELLs) Physical Factors Hearing Impairment Visual Impairment Gender Differences Other Physical Problems Summary References 3.Gathering Data to Develop Students' Literacy Profiles Introduction Information About the Environment Home Environment School Environment Social and Cultural Environments Information About the Individual Emotional Information Information About Potential (Intelligence) Physical Information Information About Language Development Methods of Collecting Information Interview and Questionnaire Informal Talks School Records and Materials Observation During Reading Lessons Summary References 4.Norm-Referenced and Criterion-Referenced Assessments Introduction Using Both Formal and Informal Assessment Norm-Referenced Tests Criterion-Referenced Tests Bias in Testing Ethical Considerations Scores on Norm-Referenced Tests Standardization, Validity, and Reliability Tests of General Reading Assessment Group Survey Tests Individual Survey Tests Normed Oral Reading Tests Diagnostic Reading Tests Diagnostic Reading Batteries Diagnostic Tests of Specific Areas Measuring Factors Related to Reading Measuring Vocabulary and Language Development Measuring Intelligence Using Intelligence Test Information in Reading Assessment Intelligence Tests That Should Be Administered by Psychologists Intelligence Tests That Can Be Administered by Teachers and Reading Specialists Interpreting Intelligence Test Scores Summary References 5.Administering an Informal Reading Inventory Introduction Does the Student Have a Reading Problem and How Severe Is It? What Is the General Area of the Reading Problem? Problems With Emergent Literacy Problems With Word Recognition Accuracy Problems With Reading Fluency Problems With Comprehension Problems With Language and Meaning Vocabulary Overview of Informal Assessment Measures The Informal Reading Inventory Obtaining Answers to General Assessment Questions Administering and Scoring the Informal Reading Inventory Interpreting the Scores of the IRI Special Issues and Options in Using IRIs IRIs and Response-to-Intervention Combining IRI Assessment With Think-Alouds Summary References 6.Providing Instruction and Intervention Strategies Introduction A New Perspective on Intervention: Grade-Level Competence Successful Intervention Programs Individual Intervention Programs K-5 Group Intervention Programs K-5 Intervention Structures 6-12 Classroom Interventions Guidelines for Teaching Struggling Readers Set High Expectations Coordinate Intervention Instruction and Classroom Instruction Use Read-Alouds to Expose Students to Higher-Level Text Emphasize Reading for Meaning Teach Students the Strategies That Good Readers Use Make Assessment an Ongoing Component of Instruction Provide a Balanced Instructional Framework Provide a Consistent Instructional Structure and Use Time Effectively Keep the Size of the Group as Small as Possible Instructional Support for Struggling Readers and RTI Summary References 7.Early Literacy Introduction Early Literacy Concepts Oral Language Development Listening Comprehension Print Knowledge Environmental Print Alphabet Knowledge Phonemic Awareness Short-Term Phonological Memory Rapid Naming Visual Memory Visual Perceptual Skills Strategies to Develop Early Literacy Concepts Oral Language Development Print Knowledge Alphabetic Knowledge and Phonemic Awareness Beginning Reading Vocabulary Summary References 8.Improving Word Knowledge: Word Recognition Introduction Stages of Word Recognition Development Strategies for Identifying Words Word Recognition and the Common Core Standards Assessing Phonics Strategies The Informal Reading Inventory Tests of Phonics Patterns Teaching Phonics Strategies Letter-Sound Relationships Organizing Phonics Instruction Decoding Through Analogy Combining Phonics and Meaning Making Students Aware of Their Strategies Dealing With Exceptions Ideas for Practicing Phonics Teaching Multisyllabic Words Assessing Structural Analysis Strategies Teaching Structural Analysis Strategies Word Recognition Strategies and Response-to-Intervention (RTI) Summary Case Study References 9.Improving Word Knowledge: Fluency Introduction The Role of Fluency in the Reading Process Fluency and the Common Core Standards Assessing Fluency Listening to Students Read Orally Determining Reading Rate Timed Administration of Word Lists General Guidelines for Fluency Development Provide Models of Fluent Reading Link Fluency Instruction to Meaning Encourage Wide Reading Avoid Unpracticed Oral Reading Strategies for Developing Fluency in Context Promoting Wide Reading of Easy Text Using Patterned Books Assisted Oral Reading Structured Repeated Reading Performance Reading Making Oral and Silent Reading Effective Strategies for Developing Sight Words in Isolation Choosing Words for Instructional Focus Guidelines for Teaching Sight Words Strategies for Focusing on Words Word Recognition Fluency and Response-to-Intervention (RTI) Summary Case Study References 10.Vocabulary Development and Listening Comprehension Introduction Importance of Language to Reading Problems With Language Development Impact of Language Disability and Delay Impact of Limited Experiences With Reading Impact of Diverse Language Environments Assessing Language Abilities Informal Measures Formal Measures Conditions That Foster Language Learning Exposure to Rich Language Active Participation Planning for Vocabulary and Language Learning Making Connections Strategies for Fostering Language: Listening Comprehension Reading Books to Students Supplemented Shared Reading Paired Story Reading Directed Listening-Thinking Activity Sentence Stretchers Encouraging Verbal Expression Strategies for Fostering Language: Meaning Vocabulary Introducing Words Before Reading Practicing and Reinforcing Meaning Vocabulary Fostering Vocabulary Learning Through Rich Literate Experiences Using Strategies to Figure Out Unknown Words Using Poetry to Develop Language Fostering the Development of Academic Vocabulary Summary References 11.Comprehension of Narrative Text Introduction Effective Reading Comprehension The Purpose of Reading Is Comprehension Comprehension Is an Active and Accurate Process Comprehension Uses Background Knowledge Comprehension Requires Higher-Level Thinking Comprehending Narrative Materials Narratives Inspire Imaginative Personal Responses Narratives Have Story Organization Assessing Abilities With Narrative Text Measuring General Comprehension Ability Judging the Comprehension of Specific Materials A Strategic Approach to Teaching Reading Comprehension Improving Comprehension Before Reading Building Background Knowledge Making Predictions About Text Reading a Story to Students Improving Comprehension During Reading The Directed Reading-Thinking Activity Monitoring Responses to Reading Making Mental Images Constructing Content-Free Questions Using Discussion Cards Improving Comprehension After Reading Comprehension Strategies That Develop an Understanding of Story Structure Comprehension Strategies That Nurture Personal Response Connecting the Literacy Experience Conceptually Connected Instruction Using Themes Studying Different Genres Summary References Case Study 12.Comprehension of Informational Text Introduction Organization of Informational Text Difficulties Presented by Informational Text Importance of Informational Text Informational Text and Grade-Level Competence Informational Text and the Common Core Standards Assessing Abilities With Informational Text Using the Informal Reading Inventory Strategies for Helping Students Read Informational Text Using Read-Alouds With Grade-Level Text Content-Free Questions Text Coding Discussion Cards Topic-Detail-Main Idea Strategy Think-Aloud Strategy Question-Answer Relationships

Note continued: Strategies for Transforming Informational Text

Main Idea Grid

Idea-Mapping

Improving Comprehension of Informational Text and RTI

Summary

References

Case Study

13.Integrating Reading and Writing

Introduction

Importance of Teaching Writing

Assessing Writing

Writing Instruction

Writing Process

Supporting Students' Writing

Personal Communication

Written Conversations

Personal Journals

Strategies for Integrating Reading and Writing

Writing and Reading Narrative Text

Writing and Reading Informational Text

Responding to Text

Writing With Poetry

Developing the Ability to Spell

Spelling Development

Spelling Assessment

Spelling Instruction

Handwriting

Summary

References

14.Literacy Instruction for Diverse Learners: English Language Learners, Literacy in a Culturally Diverse Society, Parents and Families, Adolescents and Adults With Reading Problems

Introduction

English Language Learners

Who Are ELLs?

Methods for Teaching ELL Students

Teaching Reading to ELL Students

Classroom Strategies for Teaching Reading to ELL Students

Literacy in a Culturally Diverse Society

The Important Role of Families and Parents in Fostering Literacy

You Read to Me and I'll Read to You

Parent Workshops

Adolescents With Reading Problems

Characteristics of Adolescents With Reading Problems

Special Considerations at the Secondary Level

Components of Effective Secondary Programs

Adults With Reading Problems

Postsecondary and College Programs

Summary

References

15.Literacy Instruction for Students With Special Needs

Introduction

Students With Disabilities

The Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004

Response-to-Intervention

The Individualized Education Program

Contents of the IEP

Participants at IEP Meeting

Transition Services

Procedural Safeguards

Educational Environments

Learning Disabilities

Characteristics of Students With Learning Disabilities

Educational Settings for Students with Learning Disabilities

Eligibility of Students With Learning Disabilities for Special Education

Dyslexia

Providing Reading Instruction for Students With Special Needs

Adapting Standard Reading Methods for Students With Severe Reading Disabilities

Differentiated Instruction

Differences in Cognitive Processing

Multisensory Methods for Teaching Reading

Lindamood Phoneme Sequencing Program

Direct Instruction Reading Program

Summary

References

16.Literacy Support as a Collaborative Process

Introduction

Changing Roles of Reading Specialists

Title I Programs

No Child Left Behind Act

American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009

Race to the Top

Narrowing the Achievement Gap

Role of the Reading Specialist in Assessment

Evaluation of Student Performance

Individual Diagnostic Procedures

Role of the Reading Specialist in Instruction

Working With Classroom Teachers

Working With Other Professionals

Reading Specialists as Literacy Leaders

Providing Support for Teachers

Providing Support for Paraprofessionals

Serving as Liaison Between Teachers and Administrators

Serving on Student Services Teams

Serving on the Instructional Intervention Team

Working With Parents

Literacy Advocates in the Community

Summary

References.